Preventive effect of propolis on cognitive decline in Alzheimer's disease model mice.

Brazilian green propolis (propolis) is a chemically complex resinous substance that is a potentially viable therapeutic agent for Alzheimer's disease. Herein, propolis induced a transient increase in intracellular Ca2+ concentration ([Ca2+]i) in Neuro-2A cells; moreover, propolis-induced [Ca2+]i elevations were suppressed prior to 24-h pretreatment with amyloid-ß. To reveal the effect of [Ca2+]i elevation on impaired cognition, we performed memory-related behavioral tasks in APP-KI mice relative to WT mice at 4 and 12 months of age. Propolis, at 300-1000 mg/kg/d for 8 wk, significantly ameliorated cognitive deficits in APP-KI mice at 4 months, but not at 12 months of age. Consistent with behavioral observations, injured hippocampal long-term potentiation was markedly ameliorated in APP-KI mice at 4 months of age following repeated propolis administration. In addition, repeated administration of propolis significantly activated intracellular calcium signaling pathway in the CA1 region of APP-KI mice. These results suggest a preventive effect of propolis on cognitive decline through the activation of intracellular calcium signaling pathways in CA1 region of AD mice model.

Clinical utility of positron emission tomography leading to rapid and accurate diagnosis of intravascular large B-cell lymphoma presenting with the central nervous system symptoms alone: A case report and review of the literature.

Background: Intravascular large B-cell lymphoma (IVLBCL) is a rare entity among large B-cell non-Hodgkin lymphomas and is often difficult to diagnose. We report the case of a patient with IVLBCL who presented with central nervous system (CNS) symptoms alone, in which positron emission tomography (PET) enabled a rapid and accurate diagnosis. Case Description: An 81-year-old woman was admitted to our hospital with a 3-month history of gradually progressive dementia and declining spontaneity. Magnetic resonance imaging revealed multiple hyperintense lesions bilaterally on diffusion-weighted imaging without enhancement on gadolinium-enhanced T1-weighted imaging. Laboratory findings showed elevated serum lactate dehydrogenase (626 U/L) and soluble interleukin-2 receptor (sIL-2R) (4692 U/mL). Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) analysis showed slightly elevated levels of protein (166 mg/dL) and lymphocytic cells (29/µL), and ß2-microglobulin (ß2-MG) (4.6 mg/L) was highly elevated. Whole-body computed tomography revealed faint ground-glass opacities in the upper and middle lung fields and diffuse enlargement of both kidneys without lymph node swelling. 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose (FDG)-PET showed diffuse and remarkably high FDG uptake in both upper lungs and kidneys without uptake by lymph nodes, suggesting a malignant hematological disease. IVLBCL was confirmed histologically by incisional random skin biopsy from the abdomen. Chemotherapy using R-CHOP regimen in combination with intrathecal methotrexate injection was started on day 5 after admission and follow-up neuroimaging showed no signs of recurrence. Conclusion: IVLBCL presenting with CNS symptoms alone is rare and often has a poor prognosis associated with delayed diagnosis, and various evaluations (including systemic analysis) are therefore necessary for early diagnosis. FDG-PET, in addition to identification of clinical symptoms and evaluation of serum sIL-2R and CSF ß2-MG, enables rapid therapeutic intervention in IVLBCL presenting with CNS symptoms.

Potential Role of Lipase Activity on the Internal Exposure Assessment of Glycidol Released from Its Fatty Acid Esters.

Glycidyl fatty acid esters (GEs) can be found in food, and they can be converted into genotoxic animal carcinogen glycidol in vivo by the action of lipase. This study examined whether human ingestion of charbroiled pork containing high levels of GEs (300 µg/day) increased glycidol-hemoglobin adduct (diHOPrVal), a marker of internal exposure to glycidol using LC-MS/MS. Contrary to expectation, the diHOPrVal value before ingesting charbroiled pork was 3.11 ± 1.10 pmol/g globin, which slightly decreased to 2.48 ± 0.47 pmol/g globin after 5 days of consumption. The decrease in lipase activity caused by the continuous consumption of lipid-rich foods such as meat in humans might decrease internal exposure to glycidol released from its esters. Thus, lipase activity was measured in C57/BL6J mice fed a high-fat diet (HFD) for 8 weeks, and diHOPrVal formation was measured after the administration of glycidyl oleate. Lipase activity was significantly lower in the HFD group than in the normal diet group. The amount of diHOPrVal was reduced in the HFD group. Therefore, the lipase activity was reduced by HFD, thereby decreasing the degradation of glycidol from glycidyl oleate. These results indicate that changes in lipase activity depending on the amount of lipids in the diet may affect the assessment of GEs exposure, and monitoring the lipase activity would provide a comprehensive understanding of exposure assessment.

Propolis Promotes Memantine-Dependent Rescue of Cognitive Deficits in APP-KI Mice.

Propolis is a complex resinous substance that is relevant as a therapeutic target for Alzheimer's disease (AD) and other neurodegenerative diseases. In this study, we confirmed that propolis (Brazilian green propolis) further enhances the rescue of cognitive deficits by the novel AD drug memantine in APP-KI mice. In memory-related behavior tasks, administration of a single dose of propolis at 1-100 mg/kg p.o. significantly enhanced the rescue of cognitive deficits by memantine at 1 mg/kg p.o. in APP-KI mice. In in vitro studies, propolis significantly increased intracellular Ca2+ concentration and calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II (CaMKII) autophosphorylation in Kir6.2-overexpressed N2A cells treated with memantine. Propolis also significantly increased adenosine 5'-triphosphate (ATP) contents and CaMKII autophosphorylation, which was impaired in Aß-treated Kir6.2-overexpressed N2A cells. Similarly, repeated administration of propolis at 100 mg/kg p.o. for 8 weeks further enhanced the rescue of cognitive deficits by memantine in APP-KI mice. Consistent with the rescued cognitive deficits in APP-KI mice, repeated administration of propolis markedly ameliorated memantine-dependent rescue of injured long-term potentiation (LTP) in APP-KI mice, concomitant with increased CaMKII autophosphorylation and calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase IV (CaMKIV) phosphorylation in the hippocampal CA1 region. Furthermore, repeated administration of both memantine and propolis significantly restored the decreased ATP contents in the CA1 region of APP-KI mice. Finally, we confirmed that repeated administration of memantine at 1 mg/kg p.o. and propolis at 100 mg/kg p.o. for 8 weeks failed to restore the cognitive deficits in Kir6.2-/- mice. Our study demonstrates that propolis increases ATP contents and promotes the amelioration of cognitive deficits rescued by memantine via Kir6.2 channel inhibition in the CA1 region.

Glycidol Fatty Acid Ester and 3-Monochloropropane-1,2-Diol Fatty Acid Ester in Commercially Prepared Foods.

Glycidyl fatty acid esters (GEs), which are the main pollutant in processed oils, are potential mutagens or carcinogens. 3-Monochloropropane-1,2-diol fatty acid esters (3-MCPDEs) are also well-known food processing contaminants. 3-MCPDEs are believed to be a precursor to GEs in foodstuffs. In vivo, lipase breaks down the phosphate ester of GEs and 3-MCPDEs to produce glycidol and 3-MCPD, respectively, which are genotoxic carcinogens. Thus, it is important to determine human exposure to GEs and 3-MCPDEs through foodstuffs. There are only reports on the amount of GE and 3-MCPDE in cooking oils and cooked foods. The content in multiple types of foods that are actually on the market was not clarified. In this study, 48 commercially prepared foods were analyzed to identify other sources of exposure to GE and 3-MCPDE. All of them contained relatively high amounts of GEs and 3-MCPDEs. The correlation between GEs and 3-MCPDEs in individual foods was examined. There was a correlation between the amounts of GEs and 3-MCPDEs in the food products (r = 0.422, p < 0.005). This is the first report on the content in multiple types of commercially prepared foods that are actually on the market was clarified.

Memantine improves cognitive deficits via KATP channel inhibition in olfactory bulbectomized mice.

Patients with Alzheimer's disease (AD) demonstrate severely impaired olfactory systems, which occur in the early stages of the disease. Olfactory bulbectomy (OBX) in mice elicits cognitive deficits, and reduces cholinergic activity in the hippocampus. Here, we confirmed that the novel AD drug memantine rescues cognitive deficits via ATP-sensitive potassium (KATP) channel inhibition in OBX mice. Repeated memantine administration at 1-3 mg/kg p.o. for 14 days starting at 10 days after OBX surgery significantly rescued cognitive deficits in OBX mice, as assessed using Y-maze, novel object recognition, and passive avoidance tasks. Consistent with the rescued cognitive deficits in OBX mice, long-term potentiation (LTP) in the hippocampal cornu ammonis (CA) 1 region was markedly restored with memantine administration. As demonstrated by immunoblotting, the reductions of calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II (CaMKII) α (Thr-286) autophosphorylation and calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase IV (CaMKIV; Thr-196) phosphorylation in the CA1 region of OBX mice were significantly restored with memantine. Conversely, pre-treatment with pinacidil, a KATP channel opener, failed to reinstate hippocampal LTP and CaMKII/CaMKIV activities in the CA1 region. Finally, improvement of cognitive deficits by memantine treatments was observed in OBX-operated Kir6.1 heterozygous (+/-) mice but not in OBX-operated Kir6.2 heterozygous (+/-) mice. Overall, our study demonstrates that memantine rescues OBX-induced cognitive deficits via Kir6.2 channel inhibition in the CA1 region.

Schizophrenia-Like Behavioral Impairments in Mice with Suppressed Expression of Piccolo in the Medial Prefrontal Cortex.

Piccolo, a presynaptic cytomatrix protein, plays a role in synaptic vesicle trafficking in the presynaptic active zone. Certain single-nucleotide polymorphisms of the Piccolo-encoding gene PCLO are reported to be associated with mental disorders. However, a few studies have evaluated the relationship between Piccolo dysfunction and psychotic symptoms. Therefore, we investigated the neurophysiological and behavioral phenotypes in mice with Piccolo suppression in the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC). Downregulation of Piccolo in the mPFC reduced regional synaptic proteins, accompanied with electrophysiological impairments. The Piccolo-suppressed mice showed an enhanced locomotor activity, impaired auditory prepulse inhibition, and cognitive dysfunction. These abnormal behaviors were partially ameliorated by the antipsychotic drug risperidone. Piccolo-suppressed mice received mild social defeat stress showed additional behavioral despair. Furthermore, the responses of these mice to extracellular glutamate and dopamine levels induced by the optical activation of mPFC projection in the dorsal striatum (dSTR) were inhibited. Similarly, the Piccolo-suppressed mice showed decreased depolarization-evoked glutamate and -aminobutyric acid elevations and increased depolarization-evoked dopamine elevation in the dSTR. These suggest that Piccolo regulates neurotransmission at the synaptic terminal of the projection site. Reduced neuronal connectivity in the mPFC-dSTR pathway via suppression of Piccolo in the mPFC may induce behavioral impairments observed in schizophrenia.

Factors Influencing the Formation of Chemical-Hemoglobin Adducts.

Hemoglobin (Hb) adducts have been used as biomarkers for the internal exposure to chemicals. Simultaneous exposure to chemicals that bond with the N-terminal valine of Hb to form adducts, such as glycidol, acrylamide, and glucose, may affect the formation of the individual Hb adducts. In this study, various factors influencing the formation of chemical-Hb adducts were analyzed using in vitro and in vivo systems. In the in vitro assays, the formation of glycidol- and acrylamide-Hb adducts was altered in the presence of glucose, serum albumin, and other chemicals. In contrast, in the in vivo experiments, glycidol- and acrylamide-Hb adduct formation was unchanged in mice exposed to glycidol and acrylamide. The interaction between glycidol and acrylamide with residues other than the N-terminal valine of Hb was analyzed using the protein thermal shift assay. Glycidol and acrylamide also interacted with amino acid residues other than the N-terminal valine of Hb. The presence of other blood components, such as amino acids, may affect the formation of chemical-Hb adducts. Further research is expected to elucidate the remaining unknown factors that affect the formation of chemical-Hb adducts.

Does External Exposure of Glycidol-Related Chemicals Influence the Forming of the Hemoglobin Adduct, N-(2,3-dihydroxypropyl)valine, as a Biomarker of Internal Exposure to Glycidol?

Glycidyl fatty acid esters (GE) are constituents of edible oils and fats, and are converted into glycidol, a genotoxic substance, in vivo. N-(2,3-dihydroxypropyl)valine (diHOPrVal), a hemoglobin adduct of glycidol, is used as a biomarker of glycidol and GE exposure. However, high background levels of diHOPrVal are not explained by daily dietary exposure to glycidol and GE. In the present study, several glycidol-related chemicals (glycidol, (±)-3-chloro-1,2-propanediol, glycidyl oleate, epichlorohydrin, propylene oxide, 1-bromopropane, allyl alcohol, fructose, and glyceraldehyde) that might be precursors of diHOPrVal, were administered to mice, and diHOPrVal formation from each substance was examined with LC-MS/MS. DiHOPrVal was detected in animals treated with glycidol and glycidyl oleate but not in mice treated with other chemicals (3-MCPD, epichlorohydrin, propylene oxide, 1-bromopropane, allyl alcohol, fructose, and glyceraldehyde). The amount of diHOPrVal per administered dose produced from other chemicals was negligible compared to the amounts associated with dietary glycidol and GE. The present study provides important knowledge for exploring other sources for internal exposure to glycidol.

Enhanced Retrieval of Taste Associative Memory by Chemogenetic Activation of Locus Coeruleus Norepinephrine Neurons.

The ability of animals to retrieve memories stored in response to the environment is essential for behavioral adaptation. Norepinephrine (NE)-containing neurons in the brain play a key role in the modulation of synaptic plasticity underlying various processes of memory formation. However, the role of the central NE system in memory retrieval remains unclear. Here, we developed a novel chemogenetic activation strategy exploiting insect olfactory ionotropic receptors (IRs), termed "IR-mediated neuronal activation," and used it for selective stimulation of NE neurons in the locus coeruleus (LC). Drosophila melanogaster IR84a and IR8a subunits were expressed in LC NE neurons in transgenic mice. Application of phenylacetic acid (a specific ligand for the IR84a/IR8a complex) at appropriate doses induced excitatory responses of NE neurons expressing the receptors in both slice preparations and in vivo electrophysiological conditions, resulting in a marked increase of NE release in the LC nerve terminal regions (male and female). Ligand-induced activation of LC NE neurons enhanced the retrieval process of conditioned taste aversion without affecting taste sensitivity, general arousal state, and locomotor activity. This enhancing effect on taste memory retrieval was mediated, in part, through α1- and ß-adrenergic receptors in the basolateral nucleus of the amygdala (BLA; male). Pharmacological inhibition of LC NE neurons confirmed the facilitative role of these neurons in memory retrieval via adrenergic receptors in the BLA (male). Our findings indicate that the LC NE system, through projections to the BLA, controls the retrieval process of taste associative memory.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Norepinephrine (NE)-containing neurons in the brain play a key role in the modulation of synaptic plasticity underlying various processes of memory formation, but the role of the NE system in memory retrieval remains unclear. We developed a chemogenetic activation system based on insect olfactory ionotropic receptors and used it for selective stimulation of NE neurons in the locus coeruleus (LC) in transgenic mice. Ligand-induced activation of LC NE neurons enhanced the retrieval of conditioned taste aversion, which was mediated, in part, through adrenoceptors in the basolateral amygdala. Pharmacological blockade of LC activity confirmed the facilitative role of these neurons in memory retrieval. Our findings indicate that the LC-amygdala pathway plays an important role in the recall of taste associative memory.

Nicotine Rescues Depressive-like Behaviors via α7-type Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptor Activation in CaMKIV Null Mice.

The nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) are essential for acetylcholine-mediated signaling. Two major functional subtypes of nAChR in the brain, α7-type and α4ß2-type, have a high affinity for nicotine. Here, we demonstrated that chronic exposure to nicotine at 0.03-0.3 mg/kg for 14 days rescued depressive-like behavior in calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase IV (CaMKIV) null mice. Chronic exposure to nicotine together with methyllycaconitine, an α7-type nAChR antagonist, but not with dihydro-ß-erythroidine, an α4ß2-type nAChR antagonist, failed to rescue the depressive-like behavior and restore the reduced number of BrdU-positive cells in the dentate gyrus (DG) of CaMKIV null mice. Furthermore, chronic exposure to nicotine enhanced the PI3K/Akt and ERK/CREB pathways and increased BDNF expression in the DG of CaMKIV null mice. Similar to chronic exposure to nicotine, both PNU-282987 and GTS-21, α7-type nAChR agonists, significantly rescued depressive-like behavior, with a reduction in the number of BrdU-positive cells in the DG of CaMKIV null mice. Both PNU-282987 and GTS-21 also enhanced the PI3K/Akt and ERK/CREB pathways and increased brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) expression in the DG of CaMKIV null mice. Taken together, we demonstrated that chronic exposure to nicotine rescues depressive-like behavior via α7-type nAChR through the activation of both PI3K/Akt and ERK/CREB pathways in CaMKIV null mice.

Memantine Improves Depressive-like Behaviors via Kir6.1 Channel Inhibition in Olfactory Bulbectomized Mice.

Aberrant depressive-like behaviors in olfactory bulbectomized (OBX) mice have been documented by previous studies. Here, we show that memantine enhances adult neurogenesis in the subgranular zone of the hippocampal dentate gyrus (DG) and improves depressive-like behaviors via inhibition of the ATP-sensitive potassium (KATP) channel in OBX mice. Treatment with memantine (1-3 mg/kg; per os (p.o.)) for 14 days significantly improved depressive-like behaviors in OBX mice, as assessed using the tail-suspension and forced-swim tests. Treatment with memantine also increased the number of BrdU-positive neurons in the DG of OBX mice. In the immunoblot analysis, memantine significantly increased phosphorylation of CaMKIV (Thr-196) and Akt (Ser-473), but not ERK (Thr-202/Tyr-204), in the DG of OBX mice. Furthermore, phosphorylation of GSK3ß (Ser-9) and CREB (Ser-133), and BDNF protein expression levels increased in the DG of OBX mice, possibly accounting for the increased adult neurogenesis owing to Akt activation. In contrast, both the improvement of depressive-like behaviors and increase in BrdU-positive neurons in the DG following treatment with memantine were unapparent in OBX-treated Kir6.1 heterozygous (+/-) mice but not OBX-treated Kir6.2 heterozygous (+/-) mice. Furthermore, the increase in CaMKIV (Thr-196) and Akt (Ser-473) phosphorylation and BDNF protein expression levels was not observed in OBX-treated Kir6.1 +/- mice. Overall, our study shows that memantine improves OBX-induced depressive-like behaviors by increasing adult neurogenesis in the DG via Kir6.1 channel inhibition.

Kir6.1 Heterozygous Mice Exhibit Aberrant Amygdala-Dependent Cued Fear Memory.

ATP-sensitive K+ (KATP) channels are predominantly expressed in the brain and consist of four identical inward-rectifier potassium ion channel subunits (Kir6.1 or Kir6.2) and four identical high-affinity sulfonylurea receptor subunits (SUR1, SUR2A, or SUR2B). We previously observed that chronic corticosterone-treated (CORT) mice exhibited enhanced anxiety-like behaviors and cued fear memory. In the present study, the protein and mRNA expression levels of Kir6.1, but not Kir6.2, were decreased in the lateral amygdala (LA) of CORT mice. Heterozygous Kir6.1-null (Kir6.1+/-) mice also showed enhanced tone (cued) fear memory and long-term potentiation (LTP) in the cortico-LA pathway compared to those in wild-type mice. However, LTP was not enhanced in the hippocampal CA1 regions of Kir6.1+/- mice. Consistent with increased cued fear memory, both Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II (CaMKII) and extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) activities were significantly elevated in the LAs of Kir6.1+/- mice after tone stimulation. Our results indicate that increased CaMKII and ERK activities may induce LTP in the LA in Kir6.1+/- mice, leading to aberrant cued fear memory. The changes in neural plasticity in the LA of Kir6.1+/- mice were associated with anxiety-like behaviors and may be related to the pathogenic mechanisms of anxiety disorders in human patients.

Effect of chloride on the formation of 3-monochloro-1,2-propanediol fatty acid diesters and glycidol fatty acid esters in fish, meats and acylglycerols during heating.

The effects of the presence of chloride on the formation of 3-monochloro-1,2-propanediol fatty acid esters (3-MCPDEs) and glycidol fatty acid esters (GEs) in saltwater fish, meats and acylglycerols (diacylglycerol and triacylglycerol) during heating were investigated in this study. Five saltwater fish species (salmon, saury, yellowtail, mackerel and Spanish mackerel) were grilled with a fish griller. 3-MCPDEs and GEs were detected in all of the grilled fish samples. The total amount of GEs was higher than 3-MCPDEs. Beef and pork patties with or without sodium chloride (1.5%) were cooked using gaseous fuel. The formation of 3-MCPDEs was significantly increased by the addition of sodium chloride to the meat patties, whereas the concentration of GEs in the cooked meat patties was not changed by the content of sodium chloride. Hexadecane solutions of diacylglycerol or triacylglycerol containing FeCl3 were heated at 240°C. The formation of 3-MCPDEs was greatly increased by adding FeCl3 to the solutions of triacylglycerol. The amounts of 3-MCPDEs decreased with the extension of the heating time. From these results, it is suggested that 3-MCPDEs and GEs are formed in saltwater fish and meats by cooking, and that the formation of 3-MCPDEs was affected by chloride in foodstuffs.

Aberrant Amygdala-Dependent Cued Fear Memory in Na+/Ca2+ Exchanger 1 Heterozygous Mice.

Na+/Ca2+ exchangers (NCXs) are mainly expressed in the plasma membrane and exchange one Ca2+ for three Na+, depending on the electrochemical gradients across the plasma membrane. NCXs have three isoforms, NCX1-3, encoded by distinct genes in mammals. Here, we report that heterozygous mice lacking NCX1 (NCX1+/-) exhibit impaired amygdala-dependent cued fear memory. NCX1+/- mice showed significant impairment in fear-related behaviors measured with the elevated-plus maze, light-dark, open-field, and marble-burying tasks. In addition, NCX1+/- mice showed abnormality in cued fear memory but not in contextual fear memory in a fear-conditioning task. In immunohistochemical analyses, NCX1+/- mice had significantly increased number of c-Fos-positive cells in the lateral amygdala (LA) but not in the central amygdala following fear-related tone stimuli. c-Fos expression peaked at 1 h. In concordance with the aberrant fear-related behaviors in NCX1+/- mice, enhanced long-term potentiation was also observed in the LA of these mice. Furthermore, enhancement of CaMKII or CaMKIV activity in the LA was observed in NCX1+/- mice by immunoblot analyses. In contrast, CaMKII+/- but not CaMKIV-/- mice insufficiently exhibited tone-induced cued fear memory and there was no increase in the number of c-Fos-positive cells in the LA. Altogether, the increased CaMKII activity and consequent c-Fos expression likely account for the dysregulation of amygdala-dependent cued fear memory in NCX1+/- mice.

Aberrant Amygdala-dependent Fear Memory in Corticosterone-treated Mice.

Anxiety disorder is a major psychiatric disorder characterized by fear, worry, and excessive rumination. However, the molecular mechanisms underlying neural plasticity and anxiety remain unclear. Here, we utilized a mouse model of anxiety-like behaviors induced by the chronic administration of corticosterone (CORT) to determine the exact mechanism of each region of the fear circuits in the anxiety disorders. Chronic CORT-treated mice showed a significant increase in anxiety-related behaviors as assessed by the elevated plus maze, light-dark, open-field, and marble-burying tasks. In addition, chronic CORT-treated mice exhibited abnormal amygdala-dependent tone-induced fear memory but normal hippocampus-dependent contextual memory. Consistent with amygdala hyperactivation, chronic CORT-treated mice showed significantly increased numbers of c-Fos-positive cells in the basolateral amygdala (BLA) after tone stimulation. Long-term potentiation (LTP) was markedly enhanced in the BLA of chronic CORT-treated mice compared to that of vehicle-treated mice. Immunoblot analyses revealed that autophosphorylation of Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase (CaMK) IIα at threonine 286 and phosphorylation of cyclic-adenosine-monophosphate response-element-binding protein (CREB) at serine 133 were markedly increased in the BLA of chronic CORT-treated mice after tone stimulation. The protein and mRNA levels of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) also significantly increased. Our findings suggest that increased CaMKII activity and synaptic plasticity in the BLA likely account for the aberrant amygdala-dependent fear memory in chronic CORT-treated mice.

Reduced CaM Kinase II and CaM Kinase IV Activities Underlie Cognitive Deficits in NCKX2 Heterozygous Mice.

Among five members of the K+-dependent Na+/Ca2+ exchanger (NCKX) family (NCKX1-5), only NCKX2 is highly expressed in mouse brain. NCKX2 in plasma membranes mediates cytosolic calcium excretion through electrogenic exchange of 4 Na+ for 1 Ca2+ and 1 K+. Here, we observed significantly decreased levels of NCKX2 protein and mRNA in the CA1 region of APP23 mice, a model of Alzheimer's disease. We also found that, like APP23 mice, heterozygous NCKX2-mutant mice exhibit mildly impaired hippocampal LTP and memory acquisition, the latter based on novel object recognition and passive avoidance tasks. When we addressed underlying mechanisms, we found that both CaMKII autophosphorylation and CaMKIV phosphorylation significantly decreased in CA1 regions of NCKX2+/- relative to control mice. Likewise, phosphorylation of GluA1 (Ser-831) and CREB (Ser-133), respective downstream targets of CaMKII and CaMKIV, also significantly decreased in the CA1 region. BDNF protein and mRNA levels significantly decreased in CA1 of NCKX2+/- relative to control mice. Finally, CaN activity increased in CA1 of NCKX2+/- mice. Our findings suggest that like APP23 mice, NCKX2+/- mice may exhibit impaired learning and hippocampal LTP due to decreased CaM kinase II and CaM kinase IV activities.

Reduced expression of Na+/Ca2+ exchangers is associated with cognitive deficits seen in Alzheimer's disease model mice.

Na+/Ca2+ exchangers (NCXs) are expressed primarily in the plasma membrane of most cell types, where they mediate electrogenic exchange of one Ca2+ for three Na+ ions, depending on Ca2+ and Na+ electrochemical gradients across the membrane. Three mammalian NCX isoforms (NCX1, NCX2, and NCX3) are each encoded by a distinct gene. Here, we report that NCX2 and NCX3 protein and mRNA levels are relatively reduced in hippocampal CA1 of APP23 and APP-KI mice. Likewise, NCX2+/- or NCX3+/- mice exhibited impaired hippocampal LTP and memory-related behaviors. Moreover, relative to controls, calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II (CaMKII) autophosphorylation significantly decreased in NCX2+/- mouse hippocampus but increased in hippocampus of NCX3+/- mice. NCX2 or NCX3 heterozygotes displayed impaired maintenance of hippocampal LTP, a phenotype that in NCX2+/- mice was correlated with elevated calcineurin activity and rescued by treatment with the calcineurin (CaN) inhibitor FK506. Likewise, FK506 treatment significantly restored impaired hippocampal LTP in APP-KI mice. Moreover, Ca2+ clearance after depolarization following high frequency stimulation was slightly delayed in hippocampal CA1 regions of NCX2+/- mice. Electron microscopy revealed relatively decreased synaptic density in CA1 of NCX2+/- mice, while the number of spines with perforated synapses in CA1 significantly increased in NCX3+/- mice. We conclude that memory impairment seen in NCX2+/- and NCX3+/- mice reflect dysregulated hippocampal CaMKII activity, which alters dendritic spine morphology, findings with implications for memory deficits seen in Alzheimer's disease model mice.

Immunological quality and performance of tumor vessel-targeting CAR-T cells prepared by mRNA-EP for clinical research.

We previously reported that tumor vessel-redirected T cells, which were genetically engineered with chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) specific for vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 2 (VEGFR2), demonstrated significant antitumor effects in various murine solid tumor models. In the present study, we prepared anti-VEGFR2 CAR-T cells by CAR-coding mRNA electroporation (mRNA-EP) and analyzed their immunological characteristics and functions for use in clinical research. The expression of anti-VEGFR2 CAR on murine and human T cells was detected with approximately 100% efficiency for a few days, after peaking 6-12 hours after mRNA-EP. Triple transfer of murine anti-VEGFR2 CAR-T cells into B16BL6 tumor-bearing mice demonstrated an antitumor effect comparable to that for the single transfer of CAR-T cells engineered with retroviral vector. The mRNA-EP did not cause any damage or defects to human T-cell characteristics, as determined by viability, growth, and phenotypic parameters. Additionally, two kinds of human anti-VEGFR2 CAR-T cells, which expressed different CAR construction, differentiated to effector phase with cytokine secretion and cytotoxic activity in antigen-specific manner. These results indicate that our anti-VEGFR2 CAR-T cells prepared by mRNA-EP have the potential in terms of quality and performance to offer the prospect of safety and efficacy in clinical research as cellular medicine.